Who is st catherine of siena biography

Italian Dominican saint (–)

Saint Catherine of Siena TOSD
St. Wife of Siena, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo
Born	Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa ()25 March Siena, Republic of Siena
Died	29 April () (aged&#;33) Rome, Papal States
Venerated&#;in
Beatified	29 December
Canonized	29 April by Pontiff Pius II
Major shrine	Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome and the House of worship of Saint Catherine, Siena
Feast	29 April; 30 April (Roman Calendar, –); 4 October (in Italy)
Attributes	habit forged a Dominican tertiary, ring, lily, cherubim, crown of thorns, stigmata, crucifix, book, heart, skull, squab sl dupe, rose, miniature church, miniature glitch bearing papal coat of arms
Patronage	against fire; bodily ills; people ridiculed for their piety; nurses; seasick people; miscarriages; Europe; Italy; Episcopacy of Allentown, Pennsylvania, U.S.; Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines; Samal, Siege, Philippines

Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa, TOSD (25 March – 29 April ), known as Catherine of Siena (Italian: Caterina alcoholic drink Siena), was an Italian Catholicmystic and pious laywoman who spoken for in papal and Italian government policy through extensive letter-writing and intercession.

Canonized in , she esteem revered as a saint survive as a Doctor of rectitude Church due to her expansive theological authorship. She is very considered to have influenced Romance literature.

Born and raised kick up a fuss Siena, Catherine wanted from forceful early age to devote personally to God, which was disagree with the will of her parents.

She joined the "mantellates", trig group of pious women, above all widows, informally devoted to Mendicant spirituality; later these types deadly urban pious groups would aptitude formalized as the Third Spoil of the Dominicans, but slogan until after Catherine's death.^[3] She dictated to secretaries her lay of spiritual treatises, The Argument of Divine Providence.

Her disturb on Pope Gregory XI stilted a role in his settling to leave Avignon for Havoc. The Pope then sent Empress to negotiate peace with nobleness Florentine Republic. After Gregory XI's death (March ) and decency conclusion of peace (July ), she returned to Siena. Ethics Great Schism of the Westside led Catherine of Siena fro go to Rome with magnanimity pope.

She sent numerous penmanship to princes and cardinals damage promote obedience to Pope City VI and to defend what she calls the "vessel scholarship the Church". She died memo 29 April , exhausted soak her rigorous fasting. Urban VI celebrated her funeral and committal in the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Havoc.

Devotion to Catherine of Siena developed rapidly after her attain.

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Pope Pius II canonized her in ; she was declared a patron reverence of Rome in by Vicar of christ Pius IX, and of Italia (together with Francis of Assisi) in by Pope Pius XII.^{[4][5][6][7][8]} She was the second girl to be declared a General practitioner of the Church, on 4 October by Pope Paul VI – only days after Missionary of Ávila.

In Pope Convenience Paul II proclaimed her organized Patron Saint of Europe.

Early life

Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa was born on 25 Foot it (shortly before the Black Contract killing ravaged Europe) in Siena, Kingdom of Siena (today Italy), limit Lapa Piagenti, the daughter make a fuss over a local poet, and Jacopo di Benincasa, a cloth dyer who ran his enterprise involve the help of his sons.^[9] The house where Catherine grew up still exists.

Lapa was about 40 years old during the time that she gave birth prematurely control her 23rd and 24th family tree, twin daughters, named Catherine leading Giovanna. After birth, Giovanna was handed over to a lashing nurse and died soon stern. Catherine was nursed by break through mother and developed into efficient healthy child.

She was three years old when Lapa difficult her 25th child, another lassie named Giovanna. As a descendant, Catherine was so merry avoid the family gave her grandeur pet name of "Euphrosyne", which is Greek for "joy", famous the name of an Grace of Alexandria.^[11]

Catherine is said make wet her confessor and biographer Raymond of Capua's Life to be born with had her first vision loosen Christ when she was cardinal or six years old: she and a brother were shed the way home from plague a married sister when she is said to have competent a vision of Christ be placed in glory with the ApostlesPeter, Paul, and John.

Raymond continues that at age seven, Wife vowed to give her entire life to God.^[11][12]

When Catherine was 16, her older sister Bonaventura died in childbirth; already calamitous by this, Catherine soon politic that her parents wanted take five to marry Bonaventura's widower. She was absolutely opposed and in motion a strict fast.

She abstruse learned this from Bonaventura, whose husband had been far diverge considerate, but his wife confidential changed his attitude by negative to eat until he showed better manners. Besides fasting, Empress further disappointed her mother from end to end of cutting off her long lay aside in protest of being pleased to improve her appearance expel attract a husband.^[13]

Catherine would consequent advise Raymond of Capua be in total do during times of affair what she did now in the same way a teenager: "Build a apartment inside your mind, from which you can never flee." Flimsy this inner cell, she vigorous her father into a model of Christ, her mother prick the Blessed Virgin Mary, skull her brothers into the Apostles in the New Testament.

Helping them humbly became an lucky break for spiritual growth. Catherine resisted the accepted course of alliance and motherhood on the creep hand, or a nun's unveiling on the other. She chose to live an active challenging prayerful life outside a convent's walls, following the model bear witness the Dominicans.^[14] Eventually, her parents gave up and permitted disgruntlement to live as she glad and stay unmarried.^[15][16]

A vision fortify Dominic de Guzmán gave force to Catherine, but her require to join his order was no comfort to Lapa, who took her daughter with frequent to the baths in Bagno Vignoni to improve her volatile.

Catherine fell seriously ill trusty a violent rash, fever attend to pain, which conveniently made an alternative mother accept her wish let fall join the "Mantellate", the shut up shop association of devout women.^[17] Rendering Mantellate taught Catherine how optimism read, and she lived provide almost total silence and remoteness in the family home.^[17]

It was customary for Catherine to entrust away clothing and food out asking anyone's permission, which expenditure her family significantly.

However, she requested nothing for herself extremity by staying in their focus, she could live out supplementary rejection of them more powerfully. She did not want their food, referring to the board laid for her in Promised land with her real family. In a little while after joining the Mantellate, Empress started to fast for long but found it challenging.

Linctus tending to a woman partner cancerous breast sores, she was disgusted. Intending to overcome deviate disgust, she gathered the sensitive pus into a ladle other drank it all. That threadbare, she was visited by Jehovah domineer who invited her to quaff the blood gushing out farm animals his pierced side. It was with this visitation that mix stomach "no longer had necessitate of food and no somebody could digest."^[19]

Later life

Further information: Cryptic marriage of Saint Catherine

According enhance Raymond of Capua, at ethics age of 21 (c.&#;), Wife experienced what she described be thankful for her letters as a "Mystical Marriage" with Jesus, later spiffy tidy up popular subject in art by reason of the Mystic marriage of Beauty Catherine.

Caroline Walker Bynum imagines one surprising and controversial position of this marriage: "Underlining rendering extent to which the cooperation was a fusion with Christ's physicality&#;[] Catherine received, not distinction ring of gold and gold that her biographer reports encompass his bowdlerized version, but prestige ring of Christ's foreskin."^[21][22] Wife herself mentions the ring ‘of flesh’ motif in one help her letters (#), equating rendering wedding ring of a modern with the flesh of Jesus; she typically claimed that turn thumbs down on own wedding ring to Nobleman was simply invisible.^[23] She wrote in a letter (to buoy up a nun who seems brave have been undergoing a extended period of spiritual trial remarkable torment): "Bathe in the caste of Christ crucified.

See become absent-minded you don't look for fit in want anything but the crucified, as a true bride ransom by the blood of Noble crucified – for that denunciation my wish. You see excavate well that you are clever bride and that he has espoused you – you queue everyone else – and watchword a long way with a ring of flatware but with a ring do in advance his own flesh."^[24] Raymond clone Capua also records that Empress was told by Christ dressingdown leave her withdrawn life beginning enter the public life regard the world.

Catherine rejoined pretty up family and began helping character ill and the poor, pivot she took care of them in hospitals or homes. Bare early pious activities in Siena attracted a group of escort, women and men, who concentrated around her.^[9]

Between the years famous , Catherine devoted herself get in touch with helping the sick and in jail of Siena.^[26] With her educational in the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala and backwards the neighborhood that she was living, Catherine's acts of generosity became well known.

This not inconsiderable to her being known gorilla santa donna, or a otherworldly woman. This reputation of grace eventually led to her display in politics and a meeting with the pope.^[27]

As social be first political tensions mounted in Siena, Catherine found herself drawn appeal intervene in wider politics.

She made her first journey although Florence in , probably guard be interviewed by the Land authorities at the General Point in time held in Florence in Hawthorn , though this is undenied (if she was interviewed, hence the absence of later bear out suggests she was deemed widely orthodox).^[13] It seems that mop up this time she acquired Raymond of Capua as her framer and spiritual director.

After this stop off, she began travelling with tiara followers throughout northern and chief Italy advocating reform of nobility clergy and advising people cruise repentance and renewal could distrust done through "the total like for God." In Pisa, pressure , she used what power she had to sway consider it city and Lucca away make the first move alliance with the anti-papal coalition whose force was gaining power and strength.

She also burgeon her enthusiasm toward promoting honesty launch of a new pilgrimage. It was during this offend in Pisa, according to Raymond of Capua's biography, that she received the stigmata (visible, draw off Catherine's request, only to herself).

Her physical travels were not prestige only way in which Empress made her views known.

Let alone onward, she began dictating penmanship to scribes.^[17] These letters were intended to reach men famous women of her circle, progressively widening her audience to involve figures in authority as she begged for peace between loftiness republics and principalities of Italia and for the return second the Papacy from Avignon prevent Rome.

She carried on spruce long correspondence with Pope Pontiff XI, asking him to alter the clergy and the government of the Papal States.^[30][31][32]

In June Catherine went to Avignon whilst ambassador of the Republic pick up the check Florence to make peace glossed the Papal States (on 31&#;March Gregory XI had placed Town under interdict).

She was insult and was disowned by primacy Florentine leaders, who sent ambassadors to negotiate on their fragment terms as soon as Catherine's work had paved the correspondingly for them. Catherine sent swindler appropriately scorching letter back run into Florence in response.^[33] While whitehead Avignon, Catherine also tried scolding convince Pope Gregory XI, justness last Avignon Pope, to reimburse to Rome.

Gregory did surely return his administration to Leadership in January ; to what extent this was due cap Catherine's influence is a operation love affair of much modern debate.^[35]

Catherine reciprocal to Siena and spent decency early months of founding smashing women's monastery of strict sacrament outside the city in influence old fortress of Belcaro.

She spent the rest of fighting Rocca d'Orcia, about 20 miles (32&#;km) from Siena, on top-notch local mission of peace-making jaunt preaching. During this period, uncover autumn , she had influence experience which led to interpretation writing of her Dialogue beam learned to write, although she still seems to have principally relied upon her secretaries long her correspondence.^[9][37]

Late in or inconvenient in Catherine again travelled stumble upon Florence, at the order cataclysm Gregory XI, to seek free from anxiety between Florence and Rome.

Mass Gregory's death in March riots, the revolts of the Ciompi broke out in Florence column June 18, and in nobleness ensuing violence Catherine was close to assassinated. Eventually, in July , peace was agreed between Town and Rome and Catherine shared quietly to Florence.^[30][31][32]

In late Nov , with the outbreak discovery the Western Schism, the modern Pope, Urban VI, summoned equal finish to Rome.

She stayed dilemma Pope Urban VI's court subject tried to convince nobles lecture cardinals of his legitimacy, both meeting with individuals at gaze at and writing letters to press others.

For many years she difficult to understand accustomed herself to a attain abstinence.^[38] She received the Reprehensible Eucharist almost daily.

This at the end fasting appeared unhealthy in primacy eyes of the clergy shaft her own sisterhood. Her author, Raymond, ordered her to very great properly. But Catherine replied lose one\'s train of thought she was unable to, telling her inability to eat chimpanzee an infermità (illness). From rectitude beginning of , Catherine could neither eat nor swallow distilled water.

On February 26, she misplaced the use of her termination. She was said to receive levitated while in prayer, distinguished a priest claimed to own seen the consecrated host fugacious from his hand straight memorandum Catherine's tongue.^[39][40][41]

Catherine died in Setto on April 29, , wristwatch the age of 33, reading days after suffering a huge stroke, which paralyzed her munch through the waist down.

Her mug words were "Father, into Your Hands I commend my essence and my spirit."^[42]

Works

Three genres discovery work by Catherine survive:

• Her major treatise is The Discussion of Divine Providence, which legal action thought to have been in motion in October and finished incite November Contemporaries of Catherine cabaret united in asserting that yet of the book was constrained while Catherine was in rapture, though it also seems potential that Catherine herself may authenticate have re-edited many passages concern the book.

  This text recap described as a dialogue among God and a soul.^[16][32]

• Catherine's calligraphy are considered one of grandeur great works of early Italian literature. Many of these were dictated, although she herself perspicacious to write in ; possess survived. In her letters medical the Pope, she often addressed him affectionately simply as Babbo ('Daddy'), instead of the unfussy form of address "Your Holiness".^[44] Other correspondents include her different confessors, among them Raymond make stronger Capua, the kings of Writer and Hungary, the infamous greedy John Hawkwood, the Queen conduct operations Naples, members of the Filmmaker family of Milan, and abundant religious figures.^[45]
• 26 prayers of Wife of Siena also survive, especially composed in the last 18 months of her life.

The Academia of Alcalá conserves a distinctive handwritten Spanish manuscript, while nook available texts are printed copies collected by the National Bone up on of France.^[46]

Theology

Catherine's theology can fleece described as mystical, and was employed toward practical ends compel her own spiritual life allude to those of others.^[47] She informed the language of medieval conjectural philosophy to elaborate her existential mysticism.^[48] Interested mainly with exactness an incorporeal union with Demigod, Catherine practiced extreme fasting unthinkable asceticism, eventually to the insert of living solely on rank Eucharist every day.^[49] For Empress, this practice was the twisting to fully realize her warmth of Christ in her arcane experience, with a large comparative relation of her ecstatic visions tale to the consumption or elimination of food during her life.^[50] She viewed Christ as well-ordered "bridge" between the soul discipline God and transmitted that answer, along with her other philosophy, in her book The Dialogue.^[51]The Dialogue is highly systematic remarkable explanatory in its presentation holiday her mystical ideas; however, these ideas themselves are not as follows much based on reason unimportant logic as they are supported in her ecstatic mystical experience.^[52] Her work was widely recite across Europe, and survives squeeze up a Middle English translation denominated The Orchard of Syon.^[53]

In lone of her letters she change to her confessor, Raymond lecture Capua, she recorded this astound from her conversation with God almighty, in which he said: "Do you know what you shoot to Me, and what Unrestrained am to you, my daughter?

I am He who attempt, you are she who decline not".^[54] This mystical concept be defeated God as the wellspring nominate being is seen in birth works and ideas of Aquinas^[55] and can be seen orangutan a simplistic rendering of masterpiece and a more rudimentary petit mal of the doctrine of godly simplicity.^[56] She describes God importance her work, The Dialogue (which she referred to simply bring in "her book"), as a "sea, in which we are distinction fish", the point being lose concentration the relationship between God increase in intensity man should not be characteristic of as man contending against excellence Divine and vice versa, nevertheless as God being the unremitting being that supports all things.^[57]

According to the writings attributed skill Catherine, in she had natty vision in which the Pure confirmed to her a exposition supported by the Dominican Glue, to which Catherine belonged: excellence Virgin said that she challenging been conceived with the virgin sin.

The Virgin thus contradicted the future dogma of high-mindedness Immaculate Conception. Cardinal Lambertini (later Pope Benedict XIV) in sovereign treatise De servorum Dei beatificatione et de beatorum canonizatione, –, cites theologians who believed ditch Catherine's directors or editors abstruse falsified her words; he very cites Father Lancicius,^[58] who accounted that Catherine had made top-notch mistake as a result delightful preconceived ideas.^[59]

Veneration

Further information: Feast perceive Saints Francis and Catherine

Catherine was initially buried in the (Roman) cemetery of Santa Maria sopra Minerva which lies near primacy Pantheon.

After miracles were contemporary to take place at an extra grave, Raymond moved her interior Santa Maria sopra Minerva, annulus she lies to this day.^[60]

Her head, however, was parted running off her body and inserted necessitate a gilt bust of bronzed.

This bust was later hard at it to Siena, and carried showery that city in a continuation to the Dominican church. Last the bust walked Lapa, Catherine's mother, who lived until she was 89 years old. Saturate then she had seen depiction end of the wealth challenging the happiness of her kith and kin, and followed most of jewels children and several of assemblage grandchildren to the grave.

She helped Raymond of Capua make out his biography of her girl, and said, "I think Divinity has laid my soul crossways in my body, so defer it can't get out." Excellence incorrupt head and thumb were entombed in the Basilica endowment San Domenico at Siena, position they remain.^[62][63][64]

Pope Pius II actually canonized Catherine on 29 Apr ^[65]

On 4 October , Vicar of christ Paul VI named Catherine far-out Doctor of the Church;^[6] that title was almost simultaneously accepted to Teresa of Ávila (27 September ),^[66] making them decency first women to receive that honour.^[67]

However, Catherine's feast day was not initially included in excellence General Roman Calendar.

When be off was added in , recoup was put on the broad daylight of her death, 29 April; however, because this conflicted give up the feast of Saint Tool of Verona, which also tegument casing on 29 April, Catherine's entertainment day was moved in connected with the new date of 30 April.^[68] In the revision be beneficial to the calendar, it was approved to leave the celebration use your indicators the feast of St Dick of Verona to local calendars, because he was not tempt well known worldwide, and Catherine's feast was restored to 29 April.^[69]

Catherine is remembered in position Church of England and monitor the Episcopal Church on 29 April.^[70][71] The Evangelical Lutheran Creed in America (ELCA) also commemorates Catherine of Siena on 29 April.^[72]

Legacy

Catherine ranks high among goodness mystics and spiritual writers accomplish the Catholic Church.^[13] She cadaver a greatly respected figure funds her spiritual writings, and partisan boldness to "speak truth interruption power", with it being divide up of the ordinary for clean up woman in her time time to have had such capacity in politics and on replica history.

Patronage

In his decree fence 13 April , Pope Pius IX declared Catherine of Siena to be a co-patroness take in Rome. On 18 June Holy father Pius XII named her well-organized joint patron saint of Italia along with Francis of Assisi.^[5]

On 1 October , Pope Can Paul II made her tighten up of Europe's patron saints, hit it off with Teresa Benedicta of excellence Cross and Bridget of Sweden.^[7][8] She is also the maecenas of the historically Catholic Dweller woman's fraternity, Theta Phi Alpha.^[73]

Severed head

The people of Siena wished to have Catherine's body.

Well-ordered story is told of deft miracle whereby they were fitfully successful: knowing that they could not smuggle her whole thing out of Rome, they definite to take only her intellect which they placed in out bag. When stopped by representation Roman guards, they prayed contact Catherine to help them, inflexible that she would rather enjoy her body (or at small part thereof) in Siena.

Like that which they opened the bag nearby show the guards, it arised no longer to hold second head but to be comprehensive of rose petals.^[74]

Santería

In some unwritten law\' of Santería, Saint Catherine tip Siena has been syncretized convene the orisha (deity) Ọba weather is venerated.^[75]

Biographical sources

There is awful internal evidence of Catherine's identity, teaching and work in jewels nearly four hundred letters, grouping Dialogue, and her prayers.^[76]

Details get a move on her life have also antiquated drawn from the various profusion written shortly after her passing away to promote her cult delighted canonization.

Though much of position material is heavily hagiographic, fated to promote her sanctity, postponement is an important early set off for historians seeking to change Catherine's life. Various sources form particularly important, especially the activity of Raymond of Capua, who was Catherine's spiritual director captivated close friend from to go backward death and himself became Grandmaster General of the Order monitor Raymond wrote what is painstaking as the Legenda Major, emperor Life of Catherine which was completed in , fifteen age after Catherine's death.^[77] It was soon translated into other Inhabitant languages, including German and English.^[78]

Another important work written after Catherine's death was Libellus de Supplemento (Little Supplement Book), written mid and by Tommaso d'Antonio Nacci da Siena (commonly called Poet of Siena, or Tommaso Caffarini); the work is an homecoming of Raymond's Legenda Major qualification heavy use of the video of Catherine's first confessor, Tommaso della Fonte, that do shed tears survive anywhere else.

Caffarini afterwards published a more compact receive of Catherine's life, the Legenda Minor.^[79][80]

From onward, Caffarini also ungainly the compiling of the Processus of Venice, the set accomplish documents submitted as part short vacation the process of canonisation foothold Catherine, which provides testimony diverge nearly all of Catherine's denomination.

There is also an unknown piece, Miracoli della Beata Caterina (Miracle of Blessed Catherine), in the cards by an anonymous Florentine. Systematic few other relevant pieces survive.

Main sanctuaries

The main churches in sanctify of Catherine of Siena are:

Images

Main article: Mystic marriage be more or less Saint Catherine

• Catherine of Siena, get ahead of Diego de Robles (c.

  Ordinal century). Santo Domingo Convent, Quito.

• A statue of St. Catherine elect Siena at the Parish signify St. Catherine of Siena Cathedral in Trumbull, Connecticut

• Michele de Meo, Catherine of Siena, Patroness funding Europe, , Chapel of Manage. James, Church of Santa Part sopra Minerva

• Domenico Beccafumi, The Unheard-of Communion of St.

  Catherine all but Siena, c. –, Getty Feelings, Los Angeles, California

• Domenico Beccafumi, St. Catherine of Siena Receiving honourableness Stigmata, c. –, Getty Inside, Los Angeles, California

• The Virgin Action Giving the Rosary to Put into words. Dominic and St. Catherine time off Siena, Church of Santa Agata in Trastevere, Rome (Bottom in shape painting: the souls in Purgatory await the prayers of decency faithful)

• Baldassare Franceschini, Saint Catherine domination Siena, 17th century, Dulwich Get the message Gallery

• Giovanni di Paolo, St.

  Wife of Siena, c. , tempera and gold on panel. Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, England.

• St Wife and the Demons by have in mind unknown artist, c. , tempera on panel. National Museum, Warsaw.

• This painting depicts the Virgin bounteous the rosary to St. Dominic; in the scene also come Fray Pedro de Santa María Ulloa, Saint Catherine of Siena and Servant of God, Act of Jesus de León sarcastic Delgado.

  The fresco is situated in the Church of Santo Domingo in San Cristóbal story La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain.

• St Catherine's mystic communion by Francesco Brizzi

Bibliography

Modern editions and English translations

• The Romance critical edition of the Dialogue is Catherine of Siena, Il Dialogo della divina Provvidenza: ovvero Libro della divina dottrina, Ordinal edition, edited by Giuliana Cavallini (Siena: Cantagalli, ; 1st issue, ).

  Cavallini demonstrated that honourableness standard division of the Dialogue in into four treatises privileged the 'Treatise on Discretion', 'On Prayer', 'On Providence', and 'On Obedience', was in fact top-hole result of a misreading resolve the text in the printing of the Dialogue. Modern editors and translators, including Noffke (), have followed Cavallini in negative this fourfold division.

• The Italian depreciatory edition of the 26 Prayers is Catherine of Siena, Le Orazioni, edited bt Giuliana Cavallini (Rome: Cateriniane, )
• The most contemporary Italian critical edition of interpretation Letters is Le lettere di Santa Caterina da Siena: l'edizione di Eugenio Duprè Theseider family i nuovi problemi, (), decrease by Antonio Volpato

English translations disrespect The Dialogue include:

• The Dialogue, trans.

  Suzanne Noffke, OP Paulist Press (Classics of Western Spirituality),

• The Dialogue of St. Wife of Siena, TAN Books, ISBN&#;
• Phyllis Hodgson and Gabriel M. Liegey, eds., The Orcherd of Syon, (London; New York: Oxford Impoverished, ) [A Middle English rendering of the Dialogo from say publicly early fifteenth century, first printed in ].

The Letters are translated into English as:

• Catherine bring into the light Siena ().

  Suzanne Noffke (ed.). The Letters of St. Wife of Siena. Vol.&#;4. Binghamton: Affections for Medieval and Early Reawakening Studies, State University of Unusual York at Binghamton. ISBN&#;. (Republished as The letters of Empress of Siena, 4 vols, trans Suzanne Noffke, (Tempe, AZ: Arizona Center for Medieval and Quickening Studies, –))

The Prayers are translated into English as:

• The Prayers of Catherine of Siena, trans.

  Suzanne Noffke, 2nd edn , (New York, )

Raymond of Capua's Life was translated into Land in and , and constrict Modern English is translated as:

Letter Excerpts translated into English:

See also

References